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Students, you are required to read the textbook for the instructor to be able to teach the concepts the course encompasses. (From FOUNDATION SKILLS in the Biology Department Master Syllabus.) Do not just read these notes, to succeed in this class -- at least if you wish to have a high grade, you MUST use your textbook as a LEARNING TOOL! The textbook -- especially the figures, will help clarify things you did not understand in class or from reading the lecture notes.
MAIN TOPICS OUTLINE
17.1 ANIMAL ORGANIZATION
17.2 TISSUES
17.21 Epithelial Tissue 17.22 Connective Tissue 17.23 Muscle Tissue 17.24 Nervous Tissue17.3 ORGANS
17.4 ORGAN SYSTEMS
17.41 Skeletal System 17.41.1 Bone Tisssue 17.41.2 Bones (Organs) 17.42 Digestive System 17.42.1 Digestive Tract 17.42.2 Nutrition 17.43 Circulatory System 17.43.1 Heart 17.43.2 BloodLECTURE OBJECTIVES
1. Understand the various levels of animal organization, and distinguish between the terms cell, tissue, organ, and organ system.
2. Know the characteristics of the various types of tissues. Know the types of cells that compose each tissue type and cite some examples of organs that contain significant amounts of each tissue type.
3. Name the organ systems in a mammalian body, and describe the skeletal system, the circulatory system, the digestive system, and the respiratory system.
4. Describe the composition and functions of blood.
5. Be able to trace a drop of blood through the complete pulmonary and systemic circuits, and recognize that circulatory system transports molecules, cells, and heat.
6. Understand the role of hemoglobin in red blood cells.
7. List the six classes of nutrients.
8. Be familiar with the four basic food groups; know examples of each, their sources, and their benefits.
9. Give examples of psychological eating disorders and deficiency diseases.
10. Define selected key terms.
Key Terms:def. Action potential: Nerve impulse (electrochemical changes that take place across the membrane of a nerve cell).
def. Biological levels of organization: Organization of life on a hierarchy of structural levels, from subatomic particles to the biosphere, each level building on the levels below, with additional properties emerging at each successive level, and life emerging at the level of cells.
def. Bone (tissue): Mineral hardened connective tissue.
def. Bone (organ -- pl. bones): Organs in vertebrate skeletons that function in movement and locomotion, protecting other organs, mineral storage, and (in some bones) blood cell production.
def. Cell: The smallest living unit - an organized unit that can survive and reproduce on its own.
def. Colon: Large intestine.
def. Compact bone: Dense bone with structural units called haversian systems.
def. Connective tissue: Tissue with cells separated by a matrix that often contains fibers.
def. Digestion: The primarily enzymatic process by which foodstuffs are decomposed into simple substances that can be taken up (assimilated) by the body.
def. Digestive enzyme: Enzyme involved in digestion.
def. Digestive system: Organ system that processes food into absorbable units and eliminates indigestable wastes. An internal tube (or sac) from which ingested food is absorbed into the internal environment.
def. Epithelial tissue: Tissue that covers the external surface of the body and body cavities.
def. Erythrocytes: Red blood cells.
def. Esophagus: Muscular tube for moving swallowed food from pharynx to the stomach.
def. Food guide pyramid: A tool to help the general public plan for good nutrition; guidelines for required daily intake from each of six food groups.
def. Formed elements: Cellular part of the blood, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in blood.
def. Haversian system (Osteon): Circular arrangements of calcified matrtix and bone cells that give bone tissue its characteristic appearance.
def. Lacuna: Space or cavity in bone matrix or cartilage matrix.
def. Large intestine: The portion of the digestive tract foloowing the small intestine, that absorbs water and prepares digestive remains for expulsion from the body.
def. Leukocytes: White blood cells.
def. Liver: Large internal organ that produces metabolic wastes and bile, detoxifies the blood, and regulates the amount of various substances, including blood glucose and plasma proteins.
def. Mineral: An element or inorganic compound formed by natural geologic processes and required for normal cell functioning.
def. Muscle tissue: A tissue specialized to produce motion.
def. Nervous tissue: Tissue that initiates and transmits nerve impulses to coordinate homeostasis.
def. Nutrient: A chemical substance in food that provides energy, is required for growth and maintenance, is required for reproduction, or assist in the functioning of various body processes (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water).
def. Nutrition: The collective term for the processes involved in taking in, digesting, and utilizing nutrients.
def. Organ: A structure of definite form and function that is composed of more than one tissue.
def. Organ system: Two or more organs that interact chemically, physically, or both in performing a common task.
def. Osteocyte: Bone cell.
def. Peristalsis: Rhytmic contractions of smooth muscle in the walls of tubular internal organs by which contents are forced onward as occurs in the digestive tract.
def. Plasma: Liquid part of the blood.
def. Small intestine: The portion of the digestive tract that precedes the large intestine and where digestion of food is completed and nutrient molecules are absorbed.
def. Spongy bone: Porous bone in the end of long bones which may be filled with marrow.
def. Thrombocytes: Platelets; play a role in blood clotting.
def. Tissue: A group of cells and intercellular substances that functions together in one or more specialized tasks.
def. Vitamin: Organic compound required for normal cell function that organisms generally cannot synthesize for themselves.
17.1 Animal Organization
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• 17.11 Increasing complexity : cell - tissue - organ - organ system
•Biology -- the science of life.
It is hard to define life. Instead life is often described with a list of characteristics (see chapter 1). The first level of characteristics is ORDER or ORGANIZATION. Living things have a complex organization. Biological organization is a “Hierarchy of Structural Levels”:
def. Biological levels of organization: Organization of life on a hierarchy of structural levels, from subatomic particles to the biosphere, each level building on the levels below, with additional properties emerging at each successive level, and life emerging at the level of cells.
def. Cell: The smallest living unit - an organized unit that can survive and reproduce on its own.
def. Tissue: A group of cells and intercellular substances that functions together in one or more specialized tasks.
def. Organ: A structure of definite form and function that is composed of more than one tissue.
def. Organ system: Two or more organs that interact chemically, physically, or both in performing a common task.
• Levels of Biological Organization
Subatomic Particle - Atom - Molecule - Organelle - Cell - Tissue - Organ - Organ System - Organism - Population - Community - Ecosystem - Landscape - Biosphere.
17.2 Tissues
Fig. 33.2 (40.2) 
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Fig. 33.2 (40.2) 
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Fig. (33.3) (40.3) 
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Fig. 33.4 (40.4) 
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Fig. 33.5 (40.5) 
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Fig. 33.5 (40.5) 
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Fig. 33.5 (40.5) 
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Fig. 33.6 (40.6) 
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def. Tissue: A group of cells and intercellular substances that functions together in one or more specialized tasks.
• Four major types of tissue:
Epithelial tissue: Tissue that covers the external surface of the body and body cavities.
Connective tissue: Tissue with cells separated by a matrix that often contains fibers.
Muscle tissue: A tissue specialized to produce motion.
Nervous tissue: Tissue that initiates and transmits nerve impulses to coordinate homeostasis.
17.21 Epithelial Tissue (epithelium)
-- covers (protects) body surfaces
-- line internal hollow structures, e.g., hollow organs, body cavities, & ducts
-- form glands (that secretes chemicals such as hormones)
-- exocrine glands with ducts (secrete chemicals into the ducts)
-- endocrine glands w/o ducts (secrete chemicals directly into the blood)
-- one side is exposed, one side is usually attached to a basement membrane
• TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE:
1. Squamous Epithelium (flat cells)
- simple (single layer) - stratified (many layers)2. Cuboidal Epithelium (cube-shaped cells)
- simple - stratified3. Columnar Epithelium (oblong cells)
- simple - stratified - pseudostratified (appears to be layered but is not) |
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17.22 Connective Tissue
-- binds structures
-- supports and protects structures
-- fill spaces
-- stores energy (adipose tissue)
-- formes blood cells
Connective tissue cells are separated by a matrix produced by the cells
• TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
1. Regular connective tissue:
-- Loose fibrous connective tissue (areolar tissue) -- supports epithelium and organs
-- Dense fibrous connective tissue -- form tendons and ligaments
2. Special kinds of connective tissue:
-- Cartilage -- Location: nose, ear, ends of long bones, parts of airway
Function: support, flexibility, movement of joints
-- Bone -- Location: skeleton
Function: movement, support, protection
-- Adipose tissue (fat tissue) -- Location: no specific location
Function: store energy, provides padding, and insulates the body
-- Blood -- Location: certain bones, circulatory system, lymphatic system
Function: various -- RBC: transport; WBC: protection (immunity)
17.23 Muscle Tissue (contractile tissue)
-- movement-- generation of force
Contain interacting actin and myosin filaments.
• TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE:
1. Skeletal MT
-- nonbranched, parallel, striated
-- multinucleated
-- long (depend on the muscle size since they usually run the length of the muscle)
-- voluntary movements
-- on skeletal muscles (move bones)
2. Smooth MT
-- nonbranched, spindelshaped, non-striated
-- one nucleus per cell
-- semi-long (tapering layers in which the thick middle portion is opposite thin ends of adjacent cells)
-- involuntary movements
-- in hollow internal organs (move substances in e.g., the digestive tract)
3. Cardiac MT
-- branched, slightly irregular shape, striated
-- one nucleus per cell
-- short (bound end to end at intercalated disks allowing impulses to move from cell to cell)
-- involuntary movements
-- in the wall of the heart (move blood)
17.24. Nervous Tissue
-- nerve impulses (initiate and transmit action potentials)def. Action potential: Nerve impulse (electrochemical changes that take place across the membrane of a nerve cell).
17.3 Organs
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-- Organ Level of Biological Organization
def. Organ: A structure of definite form and function that is composed of more than one tissue, usually located in a body cavity.
Coelom: Body cavity in an animal lying between the digestive tract and body wall that is completely lined by mesoderm. (Two related terms -- pseudocoelom and acoelom).
Mesoderm: Middle primary tissue layer (embryonic germ layer) of an animal embryo (the other two are ectoderm and endoderm).
e.g., the stomach, the heart, the brain, the kidneys
17.4 Organ systems
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-- Organ System Level of Biological Organization
There are 11 natural organ systems in a mammalian organism:
+ 1 functional system (several of the natural systems): Immune System (protection)
• TYPES OF ORGAN SYSTEMS:
1. Integumentary System - skin (protection)
2. Skeletal System - bones (protection, support)
3. Muscular System - muscles (movement)
4. Nervous System - nerves & brain (coordination)
5. Endocrine System - glands (coordination)
6. Circulatory System (also Cardiovascular) - blood, heart, & vessels (Transport)
7. Lymphatic System - lymph vessels (protection)
8. Respiratory System - lungs, trachea (gas exchange)
9. Digestive System - mouth >>> rectum (materials, energy)
10. Urinary System - kidneys, urinary bladder (excrete wastes)
11. Reproductive System
male - testes, penisfemale - ovaries, vagina (placenta)(produce offspring)17.41 Skeletal System
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def. bone (tissue): Mineral hardened connective tissue.
def. bone (organ) (pl. bones): Organs in vertebrate skeletons that function in movement and locomotion, protecting other organs, mineral storage, and (in some bones) blood cell production.
17.41.1 Bone Tissue
def. Compact bone: Dense bone with structural units called haversian systems.
def. Haversian system (Osteon): Circular arrangements of calcified matrtix and bone cells that give bone tissue its characteristic appearance.
def. Lacuna: Space or cavity in bone matrix or cartilage matrix.
def. Osteocyte: Bone cell.
def. Spongy bone: Porous bone in the end of long bones which may be filled with marrow.
• Compact bone: Contains many cylinder-shaped structural units called haversian systems. Each haversian system surrounds a canal called a haversian canal, that runs lengthwise through the bone, which contain a blood vessel. Haversian canals are connected to each other by transverse Volkmann’s canals. The living part, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in small spaces called lacunae, which are arranged in circles around the central haversian canal. Small canals called canaliculi connect each lacuna and bone cell with blood vessels. The hard part is a calcium rich matrix produced by the bone cells.
17.41.2 Bones (Organs)
• FUNCTIONS OF BONES
1. MOVEMENT -- interacting with skeletal muscles
2. PROTECTION -- hard bones protect brain, lungs, heart, etc.
3. SUPPORT -- support and anchor muscles
4. MINERAL STORAGE -- mineral ion storage (for metabolic activities & body fluids)
5. BLOOD CELL FORMATION --
• EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVES:
1. S-curved, flexible spine -- (advantage: bipedalism; disadvantage: lower back and neck problems)
To increase the carrying strength of the vertebral column, going from a four-legged organism to a two-legged bipedal organism, and to make balance possible in the upright position, the vertebral column is curved. At birth there is a continuous posterior convexity from head to coccyx. Later, as the child learns to sit and stand, secondary posterior concavities necessary for balance develop, during the first 18 months of age, in the cervical and lumbar regions. The normal curvature of the column is S-shaped, convex through the thoracic region and concave through the cervical and lumbar regions. The vertebra in the column is held together by flexible joints and this flexibility is decreased with age, this is especially noteworthy in the cervical and lumbar regions where displaced joints may cause pressure on the nerves and cause pain. (Thibodeau, et. al. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology.)
2. shorter pelvis -- (advantage: bipedalism; disadvantage: birth problems)
The pelvic outlet is just large enough for the passage of a baby during delivery. However, careful positioning of the baby’s head is required. The tiny coccyx bone which protrudes into the pelvic outlet, sometimes breaks when the force of labor contractions pushes the newborn’s head against it. (Thibodeau, et. al. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology.)
3. bipedalism -- (advantage: increased ability to travel and ability to see better; disadvantage: arches of the foot problems)
The main function of the foot is support. Strong ligaments and leg muscle tendons normally hold the foot bones firmly in an arched position. Architecturally arches furnish more supporting strength than any other type of construction. “Flatfoot” results when there is a weakening of tendons and ligaments attached to the tarsal bones. Downward pressure by the weight of the body of a bipedal organism gradually flattens out the normal arches of the bones in the foot. A related problem is when high heels in shoes throw the weight forward, causing the heads of the metatarsals to bear most of the body’s weight. (Thibodeau, et. al. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology.)
4. trapezius -- (advantage: opposable thumb -- ability to use hand tools; disadvantage: ?)
The main function of the hand is manipulation. The thumb metacarpal forms the most freely movable joint with the carpals. This fact has great evolutionary significance. Because of the wide range of movement possible between the thumb metacarpal and the thumb carpal trapizium, particularly the ability to oppose the thumb to the fingers, the human hand has greater dexterity than the forepaw of other animals and has enabled humans to manipulate their environment effectively. (Thibodeau, et. al. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology.)
• BONES OF THE HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM
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Names of individual bones or bone groups for lab midterm exam are in orange color.
• Axial skeleton -- 80 bones
-- skull bones
(22: Cranial Bones 8, Facial Bones 14. e.g. mandible
-- auditory ossicles
(6) (middle ear: Malleus (hammer), Incus (anvil), Stapes (stirrup))
-- hyoid bone
(1) (No articulation; support the tongue + attachment for muscles)
-- vertebrae (26)
cervical vertebrae (7): Atlas, Axis, Vertebra prominence + 4 other thoracic vertebrae (12): articulate with the ribs lumbar vertebrae (5): attachment for large back musclesSacrum (1): 5 fused bones
Coccyx (1): 4 fused bones
To increase the carrying strength of the vertebral column, going from a four-legged organism to a two-legged bipedal organism, and to make balance possible in the upright position, the vertebral column is curved. At birth there is a continuous posterior convexity from head to coccyx. Later, as the child learns to sit and stand, secondary posterior concavities necessary for balance develop, during the first 18 months of age, in the cervical and lumbar regions. The normal curvature of the column is S-shaped, convex through the thoracic region and concave through the cervical and lumbar regions. The vertebra in the column is held together by flexible joints and this flexibility is decreased with age, this is especially noteworthy in the cervical and lumbar regions where displaced joints may cause pressure on the nerves and cause pain. (Thibodeau, et. al. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology.)
-- ribs
(24 -- 12 pairs): pair 11, 12 do not attach to sternum via cartilage)
-- sternum (breastbone) (1)
• Appendicular skeleton -- 126 bones
-- pectoral girdle (Shoulder) [2 shoulders]
(2) Clavicle -- collarbone + (2) Scapula -- shoulder blade
-- arms [2 arms]
(6): Humerus, Ulna, Radius
-- hands (54) [2 hands -- 27/hand]
(16) Carpals (wrist) e.g. Trapezium, (10) Metacarpals (palm), (28) Phalanges (finger)
The main function of the hand is manipulation. The thumb metacarpal forms the most freely movable joint with the carpals. This fact has great evolutionary significance. Because of the wide range of movement possible between the thumb metacarpal and the trapizium, particularly the ability to oppose the thumb to the fingers, the human hand has greater dexterity than the forepaw of other animals and has enabled humans to manipulate their environment effectively. (Thibodeau, et. al. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology.)
-- pelvic girdle (Hip)
(2) Coxal bones -- hipbones (6 fused bones: ilium, pubis, ischium)
(Note: Sacrum + Coccyx part of the pelvic girdle -- -- but in the axial skeleton)
The pelvic outlet is just large enough for the passage of a baby during delivery. However, careful positioning of the baby’s head is required. The tiny coccyx bone which protrudes into the pelvic outlet, sometimes breaks when the force of labor contractions pushes the newborn’s head against it. (Thibodeau, et. al. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology.)
-- legs [2 legs]
(8): Femur (thighbone), Patella (kneecap), Tibia (shinbone), Fibula
-- feet (52) [2 feet -- 26/foot]
(14) Tarsals (ankle) e.g. Talus, and Calcaneus, (10) Metatarsals, (28) Phalanges (toe)
The main function of the foot is support. Strong ligaments and leg muscle tendons normally hold the foot bones firmly in an arched position. Architecturally arches furnish more supporting strength than any other type of construction. “Flatfoot” results when there is a weakening of tendons and ligaments attached to the tarsal bones. Downward pressure by the weight of the body of a bipedal organism gradually flattens out the normal arches of the bones in the foot. A related problem is when high heels in shoes throw the weight forward, causing the heads of the metatarsals to bear most of the body’s weight. (Thibodeau, et. al. 1993. Anatomy & Physiology.)
17.42 Digestive System
def. Colon: Large intestine.
def. Digestion: The primarily enzymatic process by which foodstuffs are decomposed into simple substances that can be taken up (assimilated) by the body.
def. Digestive enzyme: Enzyme involved in digestion, e.g., pepsin and trypsin
def. Digestive system: Organ system that processes food into absorbable units and eliminates indigestable wastes. An internal tube (or sac) from which ingested food is absorbed into the internal environment.
def. Esophagus: Muscular tube for moving swallowed food from pharynx to the stomach.
def. Large intestine: The portion of the digestive tract foloowing the small intestine, that absorbs water and prepares digestive remains for expulsion from the body.
def. Liver: Large internal organ that produces metabolic wastes and bile, detoxifies the blood, and regulates the amount of various substances, including blood glucose and plasma proteins.
def. Mineral: An element or inorganic compound formed by natural geologic processes and required for normal cell functioning.
def. Nutrient: A chemical substance in food that provides energy, is required for growth and maintenence, is required for reproduction, or assist in the functioning of various body processes (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water).
def. Nutrition: The collective term for the processes involved in taking in, digesting, and utilizing nutrients.
def. Peristalsis: Rhytmic contractions of smooth muscle in the walls of tubular internal organs by which contents are forced onward as occurs in the digestive tract.
def. Pepsin: Enzyme secreted by the pancreas that digests proteins (and shorter polypeptides).
def. Small intestine: The portion of the digestive tract that precedes the large intestine and where digestion of food is completed and nutrient molecules are absorbed.
def. Trypsin: Enzyme secreted in the stomach that digests proteins (and shorter polypeptides).
def. Vitamin: Organic compound required for normal cell functioning, that organisms generally cannot synthesize for themselves
17.42.1 DIGESTIVE TRACT
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Movement: smooth muscle peristalsis
i. Mouth -- chewing of food, digestion of starch (salivary glands, amylase)
ii. Esophagus -- move food to stomach (peristalsis)
iii. Stomach -- food storage, kill bacteria (acid), protein digestion (pepsin, acid)
iv. Small intestine -- all food digestion (many enzymes), nutrient absorption
-- duodenum (first part of small intestine - food reach as chyme)v. Large intestine -- water absorption, storage of non digestible remains (waste)
vi. Rectum -- defecation (waste removal from the body)
-- anus (the outlet of the rectum)"Stomach Acid": Hydrochloric Acid, HCl, pH 1-2.
Digestive Enzymes: e.g., Pepsin (in the stomach), Trypsin (in the small intestine).
17.42.2 NUTRITION
• NUTRIENTS
def. Nutrient: A chemical substance in food that provides energy, is required for growth and maintenance, is required for reproduction, or assist in the functioning of various body processes (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water).
def. Vitamin: Organic compound required for normal cell function that organisms generally cannot synthesize for themselves,
def. Food pyramid (Food guide pyramid): A tool to help the general public plan for good nutrition; guidelines for required daily intake from each of six food groups.
• FOOD PYRAMID (Ideal American Diet)
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i. Bread, cereals, rice, and pasta: 6-11 servings.
ii. Vegetables: 3-5 servings.
iii. Fruits: 2-4 servings.
iv. Milk, yogurt, cheese: 2-3 servings.
v. Meat, poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs, and nuts: 2-3 servings.
vi. Fats, oils, sweets: use sparingly.
• NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES
• Nutritional deficiency diseases may develop when the level of essential nutrients in the diet is so low that a person may develop health problems that could ultimately lead to death.
i. Kwashiorkor: Protein-deficiency disease.
ii. Xerophthalmia: Vitamin A-deficiency disease.
iii. Beriberi: Vitamin B1-deficiency disease.
iv. Pellegra: Vitamin B3-deficiency disease.
v. Rickets: Vitamin D-deficiency disease.
vi. Scurvy: Vitamin C-deficiency disease.
• VITAMINS
def. Vitamin: Organic compound required for normal cell function that organisms generally cannot synthesize for themselves.
• Vitamins are essential to cellular metabolism and many are protective against illnesses and various unhealthy conditions.
Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K (Fat Soluble -- can be stored in large amounts in the body)
Vitamin B “Complex” (Thiamine B1, Riboflavin B2, Niacin B3, Pyridoxine B6, B12, Biotin, Folic acid, Pantothenic acid), Vitamin C (Water Soluble -- cannot be stored in large amounts in the body)
• MINERALS
def. Mineral: An element or inorganic compound formed by natural geologic processes and required for normal cell functioning.
• In addition to vitamins, various minerals are also required by the body. (Sodium is required in the diet, however, excess sodium can lead to hypertension; therefore, we should reduce sodium intake.)
Calcium Ca, Phosphorus P, Potassium K, Sodium Na, Chlorine Cl, Magnesium Mg (Macrominerals -- more than 100mg/day recommended)
Zinc Zn, Iron Fe, Fluorine F, Cupper Cu, Iodine I (Microminerals -- less than 20mg/day)
• EATING DISORDERS
• Eating disorders may develop when eating to much or to little, regardless of the nutritional quality.
i. Obesity: Eating disorder due to genetic and /or psychological factors characterized by overweight “extremely fat” to the extent that a person’s health and life span are adversely affected.
- obese
ii. Bulimia: Eating disorder due to psychological factors “insatiable appetite” characterized by a binge-and-purge cycle of eating (difficult to detect -- person often normal or overweight)
- bulemic
iii. Anorexia nervosa: Eating disorder due to sociocultural factors characterized by severe, prolonged weight loss “loss of apetite” for fear of becoming obese.
- anorectic (anorexic)
17.43 Circulatory System
def. Antibody: Protein produced in response to the presence of an antigen.
def. Antigen: Foreign substance that stimulates the immune system to react, such as to produce antibodies.
def. Aorta: In humans, the major systemic artery that takes blood from the heart to the tissues.
def. Arteriole: Blood vessel that takes blood from the arterty to capillaries.
def. Artery: Blood vessel that transports blood away from the heart (also see vein).
def. Atrium: Upper chamber of the heart, above the ventricles (also see ventricle).
def. Blood: Type of connective tissue in which cells are separated by a liquid called plasma.
def. Blood pressure: Force of blood pushing against the inside wall of blood vessels.
def. Capillary: Microscopic blood vessel consisting of on cell layer, where gas and other substances are exchanged
def. Circulatory (cardiovascular) system: Organ system which distributes the blood to deliver nutrients and remove wastes.
def. Diastole: Relaxation period of a heart during the cardiac cycle (also see systole).
def. Erythrocyte: Red blood cell; contains hemoglobin and carries oxygen from the lungs or gills to the tissue in vertebrates.
def. Formed elements: In vertebrates, the cellular portion of blood (also see formed elements).
def. Heart: Muscular organ whose contraction causes blood to circulate in the body of an animal.
def. Hemoglobin: Iron containing pigment (a protein) in red blood cells necessary for gas exchange.
def. Leukocyte: White blood cell (of which there are several types).
def. Lymph: Fluid, derived from tissue fluid, that is carried in lymphatic vessels.
def. Plasma: In vertebrates, the liqued portion of blood (also see formed elements).
def. Platelet: (Trombocyte) Cell fragment found in blood that initiate blood clotting.
def. Red blood cell: Erythrocyte.
def. Systole: Contraction period of a heart during the cardiac cycle (also see diastole).
def. Thrombocyte: (Platelet) Cell fragment found in blood that initiate blood clotting.
def. Tissue fluid: (Interstitial fluid, Intercellular fluid) Extracellular fluid that fills the microscopic spaces between the cells of tissues.
def. Vein: Blood vessel that arises from venules and transports blood to the heart (also see artery)
def. Vena cava: Large systemic vein that returns blood to the right atrium of the heart.
def. Ventricle: Lower chamber of the heart, below the ventricles (also see atrium).
def. Venule: Blood vessel that takes blood from capillaries to a vein.
def. White blood cell: Leukocyte.
• MEDIUM: blood
• PUMP: heart
• DISTRIBUTING VESSELS: arteries, arterioles, veins, venules, capillaries (tiny vessels)
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17.43.1 Heart
The heart is a cone shaped, muscular organ about the size of a fist. The function of the heart is to pump blood in the arteries. (Skeletal muscles are primarily responsible for movement of blood in the veins.)
17.43.2 Blood
def. Erythrocytes: Red blood cells.
def. Formed elements: Cellular part of the blood, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in blood.
def. Leukocytes: White blood cells.
def. Plasma: Liquid part of the blood.
def. Thrombocytes: Platelets; play a role in blood clotting.
• Function of Blood
1. Transport medium.
i. Food, oxygen and waste (enter or exit the body) ii. Hormones, enzymes, buffers (within the body)2. Heat Regulation
3. pH Regulation
4. Protection
i. Blood Clottingii. Immune response• PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. Volume
-- 8% of total body weight
Average 70 kg (154lbs) young adult male: 5 l (approximately 1.5gal)
Average 70 kg (154lbs) young adult female: 4 l (approximately 1.2gal)
(The amount is influenced by body fat - short, fat 70 kg young adult male: < 5 l.)
2. pH
Slightly alkaline about pH 7.4 (range 7.35 - 7.45)
3. Temperature
38°C (approximately 100.4°F)
• BLOOD COMPONENTS
1. Plasma (55%)
– liquid part; clear, straw-coloreda. Water (91%)b. Solutes (9%)• proteins (7%):Fibrinogen (blood clothing)Globulins (antibodies)• amino acids• glucose• lipids• oxygen• urea• lactic acid• carbon dioxide2. Formed Elements (45%)
– cellular part; reda. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells, RBC) 99%-- transport oxygen and carbon dioxide (pigment Hemoglobin)b. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells, WBC) 1%-- several functions related to the body immune system.c. Thrombocytes (Platelets)i. blood flow (vasoconstriction)– injury– temp. regulationii. blood clotting (blood coagulation)– aggregate and agglutinate easy.
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Copyright 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, Jan A. Nilsson. Web page layout and design © and intellectual property Jan A. Nilsson . All rights reserved. Reproduction of the whole or any part of the contents without written permission is prohibited. Page created 10.I.2001, last updated 17.I.2004, most likely during the wee hours of the morning on a G3 PowerBook owned by Jan A. Nilsson.
-- Disclaimer: "Dr. Nilsson's CyberOffice", at the time of writing located as a file under the South Texas Community College's (STCC) web server with the general URL http://stcc.cc.tx.us/, is the intellectual property of Dr. Jan A. Nilsson, member of STCC biology faculty. The content of Dr. Nilsson's CyberOffice does not necessarily reflect the opinions and beliefs of the STCC faculty, staff, administration, and Board of Trustees.