The Learning Resource goal is to use the Internet and become independent of the textbook used by the STC biology department -- taking advantage of learning tools on the Internet such as YouTube videos, and external links (e.g., Wikipedia). It is a project in progress (hence the running dog)... Understand that these learning resources are only an overview. Don't forget that your complete and most important learning resource is your textbook. You are expected to use it...
Note on Youtube videos included in the notes: YouTube videros are included as "extra" learning material -- and are often excellent learning tools. However,YouTube videos often disappear or become nonfunctional. This is UNFORTUNATELY the nature of YouTube videos. Often videos become nonfunctional (message: "an error occurred") because of YouTube updates or the person who originally uploaded the video has removed it. Sometimes YouTubes are removed bt YouTube itself because of copyright infringement. The instructor is not responsible for this, but will when possible either fix the problem or eventually remove a nonfunctioning video.
This page is going through major updates.
If you see errors, misspellings, incorrect links,
please let the instructor know in the HELP DESK.
The Hierarchy of Life. Bozeman Science. Paul Andersen explains how biology is ordered in the hierarchy of life. He first of all describes how emergent properties appear as you move to more inclusive systems. The then describes life at the following levels; atom, molecule, macromolecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organisms, population, community, ecosystem, biome and finally biosphere.
This Learning Resource chapter is an overview of biology and was written to help you understand the scientific process and learn the basic concepts of general biology so that you will be better informed. This chapter introduces you to some biological concepts, e.g., the levels of biological organization, the scientific method, and evolution.
Because Biology is the Study of Life, a typical General Biology text opens with a description of the characteristics of life (in simple terms organization, acquiring things, responding, reproducing and developing, and adapting), followed by a discussion of the human species' integration into the diverse biosphere, taxonomic classification, the system by which all organisms are categorized, and evolution, and the steps of the scientific method.
In addition, a short note on one of the most important tools in biology, the microscope, is included at the end of this page.
I recommend that you now view the video above...
--- Life and Biological Organization ---
Biological Organization
Living things on Earth are organized and this organization can be used to facilitate communication about and understanding of life and nature. This organization is a hierarchy from small subatomic particles and atoms to large ecosystems and the Biosphere. The "biological organization" is often also called "hierarchy of life".
Whoever makes drawings in textbooks are different artist with different creative ideas, so the look of the figure of biological organization varies with textbooks, and the artist who did the drawing of the figure, and sometimes all levels are not included (even though they all still exist). Find the figure in your textbook. You may also find more information on the memorization quiz page for this class, or on Wikipedia or the BioInfoBank.
If the embedded video (above) does not load, use link to the SlideShare web site (below).
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/judan1970/unit-3-lesson-32-levels-of-biological-organization. August 2015, judan1970. Used for educational purposes.
Below is a collection of Biological Organization figures...
From the Memorization Quizzes...
From the General Biology I part (Introduction) of the textbooks...
Source: Raven, et al. Biology. Ed. 9. 2011. McGraw-Hill. To see a larger image -- right click with your mouse to open image in new window.
Source: Mader and Windelspecht. Essentials of Biology. Ed. 3. 2012. McGraw-Hill. To see a larger image -- right click with your mouse to open image in new window.
Biological Organization. Used for educational purposes. From S. S. Mader. 2010. Biology. McGraw-Hill, the textbook used by the instructor since 1996. To see a larger image -- right click with your mouse to open image in new window.
From the General Biology II part (Animal Structures) of the textbooks or from the Internet...
Biological Organization (Human body, Cell to Organism...) Source S. S. Mader. Biology. McGraw-Hill.
Biological Organization (Human body, Cell to Organism...) Source S. S. Mader. Biology. McGraw-Hill.
Want more? Click on the link above. Again, the "figure" you need to know for the class is the figure illustrating the hierachy on the Memorization quiz (small thumbnail below with a link)...
Characteristics of Life
Biology is the study of life. Life on Earth takes many forms, but they have certain characteristics of life in common.
ORGANIZATION -- they are made of and organized with cells (the basic unit of life). METABOLISM -- they acquire materials and energy for metabolism. RESPONSE -- they respond to stimuli in the external or internal environment. REPRODUCTION -- they reproduce and develop (grow). ADAPTATION -- they adapt and change over time (evolve) in response to the environment.
Each level in the hierarchy builds upon the previous level, and new properties, so called emergent properties not present in the previous levels, emerge as one moves up the hierarchy -- properties that cannot be entirely explained by their individual components.
An EMERGENT PROPERTY is a property which a collection or complex system has (e.g. tissues, organ system, or population of organisms), but which the individual members (e.g., an individual cell, individual organ, or an individual organism) do not have. Each level of life have properties greater than the sum of its parts -- e.g., circulatory system has properties (transporting nutrients, body temperature control) that its parts -- the organs -- do not have, or a population of humans have properties (spatial distribution, mate availability) that its parts -- the individuals -- do not have.
cell vs. tissues
organ vs. organ systems
organism vs. population
All of the above vs. the biosphere
Homeostasis is an important emergent property. The organ system level is important for the regulation of the internal environment of multicellular organisms. The maintenance of a constant internal environment by monitoring and modifying the functions of various organ systems that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition (e.g., pH and body temperature) is called homeostasis. (This particular concept is further discussed in General Biology II.)
The biological organization levels beyond the (multicellular) organism level, the ecological levels, extend to the biosphere -- the zone of air, land, and water on Earth where organisms exist. In the ecosystem level all the organisms and the physical environment interact -- the ecological community together with the environment functioning as a unit, e.g., a pond. All ecosystems make up the biosphere. (Sometime for convenience an intermediate category between ecosystem and biosphere -- Landscape -- is used.)
--- Diversity and Unity of Life, Evolution and Classification ---
(Fore source click on the pictures...)
Diversity and Unity
Life is very diverse, but all living things share the same basic characteristics mentioned above -- Man, the chimpanzee, tigers and titan lilies (the worlds largest flower, see photos above), they are organized as cells with DNA, they acquire materials and energy, they respond to things in the environment, they reproduce, and they adapt to changes in the environment. They are all composed of cells organized in a similar manner. All living organisms have genes composed of DNA molecules to carry out and regulate these basic characteristics.
The number and variety of organisms in a certain area is referred to as biodiversity. It comes in three different categories, genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.
This unity of living things suggests that all living things are descended from a common ancestor -- the first cell or cells about 4 billion years ago, and that humans had a common ancestor with the chimpanzee living about 5 million years ago.
(Picture from ed. 10 of Biology, by Mader.)
Living things, and the common ancestry of living things, can be depicted as a picture of an evolutionary tree (also called phylogenetic tree). An evolutionary tree illustrates the branching of organisms over time from the past to present. The closer the separation (branching point), the closer the relationship is between groups. (So in the figure above, animals are closer related to fungi, than to plants.)
An evolutionary tree is like a family tree, branching diagram, which shows relationships among various groups of organisms, how they have descended from earlier living common ancestors, over time changed, and branched to new species because of their physical and/or genetic characteristics due to adaptations to different environmental conditions. If groups (taxa) are joined together in the tree it means they have descended from a common ancestor.
The mechanism for the adaptations is called natural selection and it is the driving mechanism behind evolution. It includes the idea that through the process of reproduction over the course of many generations organisms become more suited to their environments. As the environment may change evolution constantly reshapes the species, providing a way for organisms to survive, despite the changing environment.
Because it explains so many aspects of biology, including how living organisms arose from a common ancestor, evolution is considered the "red thread" or the unifying concept of biology.
The scientific theory of evolution is the unifying concept of biology, because it pertains to many different aspects of living things. Because the theory of evolution has been supported for over 100 years, it is considered present day established knowledge how things work on this planet, and some biologist prefer to call it a scientific "principle" or a scientific "law" -- terms used for scientific "theories" that have been rigorously tested and are generally accepted by an overwhelming number of scientists.
Classification is mostly a topic covered in general Biology II. However, because organisms these days are organized and classified into groups according to evolutioinary relationships -- which is discussed at the end of General Biology I, it is necessary to at least know the names and have some ideas about the various taxonomic groups that exist.
To organize the diversity of organisms on earth, they are "classified" into 8 major levels of classification (taxonomical categories) -- Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
(Fore source click on the picture...)
There are 3 domains and 6 kingdoms (see figure above of the Domain/Kingdom taxonomic tree). To specify the name of an organism its scientific binomial name is used, which is the genus name and the "specific epithet", such as the scientific name of Man, Homo sapiens.
The Taxonomy Song (For my friends in PreMed).phastoeh. Me and George's way of memorizing the taxonomic levels of biological classification. I'm a nerd.
- - - Khan Academy: Taxonomy and the Tree of life - - -
Taxonomy and the Tree of life. Khan Academy. The science of taxonomy and where humans fit into the tree of life.
--- Principles of Science ---
The process of science pertains to biology (as one of the natural science fields), often referred to as the Scientific Method. Religion, aesthetics, ethics, and science are all ways in which human beings seek order in the natural world. Science differs from these other ways of knowing and learning because the scientific process uses the "scientific method" to obtain factual data facts through OBSERVATION with the natural senses. Science can only deal with events that can be perceived with our five basic senses. The "scientific method" is a standard series of steps used in gaining new knowledge that is widely accepted among scientists.
The Scientific Method
The scientific method can be depicted with a figure, and like all figures. The look of the figure varies slightly with textbooks, scientist, and the artists, who did the drawing of the figure, and sometimes all steps are not included, but the first step is always the OBSERVATION, and end with a CONCLUSION. The figure below has the most important basic steps. If you want a slightly more detailed description then you get here, click on the figure below and read how the scientific method works (the link is also the source of the figure).
In order to do anything one must first make an OBSERVATION, something with the natural senses (vision, smell, taste, hearing and/or touch). Scientists are curios persons (hopefully) and will then usually always ask a QUESTION (or several) about what they observe in nature.
After making observations, asking questions, and gathering knowledge about what is observed, scientists use "inductive reasoning" (using past experiences and knowledge to come up with a possible answer the question asked about a natural event (a tentative answer or an "intelligent guess"), in science called a HYPOTHESIS.
You probably do these three steps yourself every day -- at least if you are a person with an open mind thinking and wondering about things. But the scientific method does not end with a tentative answer to a question. I science a tentative answer is followed by a TEST. Scientists only consider hypotheses that can be tested.
Moral and religious beliefs might be important to the lives of many people, but they differ between cultures and through time and cannot be tested. Moral and religious beliefs are "value judgments" and cannot be tested and can therefore not be investigated with the scientific method.
A 'test' can either be a 'controlled experiment' or 'further observation' to try to find out of the hypothesis was correct. Further observation is simply making more observations, while a controlled experiment is a more elaborate method to see if the tentative answer is correct -- using independent variables, dependent variables and a control group. To determine how to test a hypothesis, a scientist uses "deductive reasoning" ("if, then" logic). This often involves a "prediction" helping a scientist to set up the test.
The results of an experiment are referred to as data. Many tests rely on mathematical/statistical data, and are often displayed in the form of a graph or table. Data must be OBSERVABLE and OBJECTIVE (rather than subjective). Things that are based on subjective value judgment, like religious faith about the supernatural or art (an opinion about a painting -- if it is good or bad) cannot be used in scientific testing.
Scientist then analyzes the test data to reach a conclusion about the hypothesis. The hypothesis is accepted or rejected in a CONCLUSION. A conclusion can lead to new hypotheses and/or new tests. If it is rejected a new hypothesis is formed, and so on until an acceptable hypothesis has been found.
Simplified, then, you have the following steps:
OBSERVATION (with one or several of the natural senses sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch) QUESTION (may include literature research) HYPOTHESIS (may include predictions and must be in a testable form) TEST (Controlled experiment -- or -- further observation) CONCLUSION (Analyzing the results -- the data -- of the test and accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. If the results of the test is interesting -- publish the findings...)
In some cases scientists use models, usually with the help of a computer, as a representation of the actual object, because altering the actual object may be physically impossible, very expensive, or morally questionable.
Errors can affect a test, so scientists work with statistical probabilities of an error occurring. Even if the probability of an error is low, scientists must be "skeptics" who always pressure one another to continue investigating a particular topic.
Scientists therefore openly publish their research in peer reviewed journals and magazines, so that methodology and data are available to other scientists for critique. Experiments and observations (the test of the hypothesis) must be repeatable -- the reporting scientist or other scientists who repeats the experiment must get the same results, or else the data are suspect.
Another figure depicting the Scientific Method. Source: http://lewweb.net/science/scientificmethod_flowchar.htm
Scientific Method.mov:maynerscience's channel. I made this video, the Scientific Method Song, to help my class to remember the steps of the scientific method.
Scientific Theory
A SCIENTIFIC THEORY is NOT a 'speculation'...
The goal of science is to learn about the natural world and to understand it in terms of what is referred to as scientific "theories". A scientific theory joins together well-supported and related hypotheses -- unlike ordinary language where the word theory just means a speculation. This different meaning is often why people without a science education misunderstand the meaning of well-supported theories such as the cell theory, gene theory and the theory of evolution.
What is a Scientific Theory? jebrodsky14. Ever wondered what the difference is between a "scientific" theory and the way people use the word "theory" in everyday life? Learn about scientific theories and some common misconceptions about them. Great as an introduction to science or as a quick refresher!
The Microscope
Because organisms can be very small, we often use a microscope to view them. Light microscopes use light passing through lenses to magnify an object. The "compound light microscope" is used to examine small and thin sections of objects under high magnification. The term "compound" refers to the use of two sets of lenses, the ocular lenses located near the eyes, and the objective lenses located near the object. The light is coming from below, and passes through clear and thin objects.
Microscope figure from Essentials of Biology, Mader, used by permission from McGrawHill, in Biology 1407 and 1409, by Dr. Jan A. Nilsson, South Texas College.
Depending on which class you registered for, you may use different microscopes. In the F2F classroom lab you will use the compound light microscope. View the YouTube video below, to learn the microscope parts and how to use the microscope. One of the questions in the Textbook Chapter Quiz will ask about the microscope, and the video is helpful to find the answer.
Microscope Parts pictures (used for Face-2-Face class):
(All images used for educational purposes following 'fair use'. For more source information, see disclamer at the bottom of this page.)
Making a Wet Mount pictures (used for Face-2-Face class):
(All images used for educational purposes following 'fair use'. For more source information, see disclamer at the bottom of this page.)
• Easier to communicate if everyone uses the same system of measurement.
• The Metric System, or the SI-system (System International)
-- the system of measurement units used in most of the civilized world
-- the system used for scientific work (including United States).
-- first adopted in France in 1795.
-- Even though the International (Metric) System received legislative sanction by the U.S. Congress as early as 1866, it has not yet become the accepted system of measurement in the United States.
"Scientist throughout the world use the metric system to make measurements. The metric system is also used in everyday life virtually everywhere except in the United States. With a few exceptions most measurements in the United states use an antiquated English system of pound, inches, feet, and so on."
Not just scientists use the metric system.
__________________________________________________
1. Scientists
2. Auto industry (for cars sold outside the U.S.)
3. Military
__________________________________________________
"Metric measurements is used worldwide in science to improve communications in the scientific community. Scientists make all of their measurements in the metric system, they do NOT routinely convert from one system to the other."
Below are some of the conversions that can be used:
(most lab manuals usually have an appendix with conversions)
[From the lab manual (p.18), 2011. Biological Investigation, BIOL 1406, BIOL 1407, Lab Manual South Texas College, ed.9. Dolphin, et al., McGrawHill Higher Education, New York.]
• Easier to use.
-- remember the referenceunits
-- multiply and divide by ten (10) --> easy to the calculations -- remember the prefixes --> easy to understand the numbers
Decimal system 0.25 -- instead of 1/3 0.1 instead of 1/10 -- Calculators work on a decimal system
Convert between sub-units easy: 1m = 10dm = 100cm = 1000mm --> units of the metric system are related by (multiples of) the number 10
Inter-convert between different reference units is possible based on the definition:
• Celsius vs. Fahrenheit
- Different reference points used.
-- Water is used as reference chemical in the Celsius scale (visible boiling & freezing).
- The scale units between Celsius and Fahrenheit are not equal:
1°C = 1.8°F.
-- Because of the 0.8 unit scale difference the Fahrenheit temperatures in the table below are just approximate. Human body temperature of exactly 37°C translates to 98.6°F, or Absolute temperature -273°C translate to -459.4°F.
Conversion formulas:
convert to °F = (°C x 9 / 5) + 32 convert to °C = 5(°F - 32) / 9
or
convert to °F = °C (9/5) + 32 convert to °C = 5/9 (°F - 32)
• A third temperature scale is the Kelvin scale – used in Chemistry
- - Same reference points used,boiling & freezing of water, but different zero points.
(no negative numbers in the Kelvin scale)
- The scale units between Celsius and Kelvin are equal: 1°C = 1K.
Celsius
Fahrenheit
Kelvin
Boiling point of water
100°C
212°F
373 K
Milk Pasteurization
71°C
160°F
344K
Highest Recorded U.S. Temp.
57°C
134°F
Human body temperature
37°C
98.6°F
310 K
Comfortable temperature
20°C
‰ 70°F
293 K
Freezing point of water
0°C
32°F
273 K
Freezer temperature
-18°C
0°F
255K
Really cold weather (in ND)
-40°C
-40°F
233 K
Absolute zero
-273°C
-459°F
0 K
(exact absolute zero: -273.16°C, -459.69
• The Celsius natural reference points are easy to observe and understand, and degrees Celsius (°C) are easy to use in calculations since there are 100 scale units between the reference points
-- Hence the incorrect but sometimes used name “centigrade”; Centi = 100.
In Fahrenheit (°F) there are 180 scale units; 212 °F - 32 °F = 180°F.
- - - Linking the chapters - - -
Life on Earth takes many forms, but living organisms are united by common characteristics, such as the ability to adapt, and descend with modification (evolution), which occurs when these adaptations are passed from one generation to the next over long periods of time.
Evolution is a unifying concept in biology that accounts for the difference that divide and unity that joins all living things. All living things are organized and function similarly because they share a common evolution (common ancestor) extending back through time to the first cells on Earth.
We have knowledge about the natural world from objective observation and testing through the scientific method. The goal of science is to understand the natural world in terms of theories supported by research. Scientific research provide the public with information and can help make possible intelligent decisions about what is most likely best for our society.
Textbooks in biology are written to make students better informed and to help students understand the scientific process and to learn the basic concepts of biology. Chapter 1 introduced you to the levels of biological organization, from the cell to the biosphere. The cell, the simplest of living things, is composed on nonliving molecules. The next chapter will continue with a look at cellular chemistry -- important inorganic and organic molecules as they relate to cells, followed by use of energy and materials in the cell for maintenance and reproduction.
(Modified from Mader, S.S. 2010. Biology. Ed. 10. The textbook in use at STC by the time of this writing.)
If anyone feels that his or her material cannot be used this way I will immediately remove it if notified.
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Kit
ACTIVITY 1:
Lab Safety signature and Analysis of Importance of coming to class:
Figure 1 in the present lab manual, and on this page (below), is a diagram illustrating the
importance of commng to class. Study the figure and write an analysis on the handout provided, of the data shown in the figure
ACTIVITY 2:
Figure Drawings: Biological Organization
The figure on the screen is illustrating the
Hierarchy of Biological Organization. For practical purposes it is too big
to draw on the figure drawing activity handout, so only draw the levels indicated with blanks and write
the name of other parts on the lines.
Biological Organization. Used for educational purposes. From S. S. Mader. 2010. Biology. McGraw-Hill, the textbook used by the instructor since 1996. To see a larger image -- right click with your mouse to open image in new window.
Below are some 'inspirational' examples of how to illustrate the levels indicated for you to draw on the handout...
This Learning Resource chapter is an overview of biology and was written to help you understand the scientific process and learn the basic concepts of general biology so that you will be better informed. This chapter introduces you to some biological concepts, e.g., the levels of biological organization, the scientific method, and evolution.
I recommend that you now view the video above...
Life and Biological Organization ---
Biological Organization
From the Memorization Quizzes...
From the General Biology I part (Introduction) of the textbooks...
From the General Biology II part (Animal Structures) of the textbooks or from the Internet...
From the General Biology II part (Ecology) of the textbooks...
From other textbooks or the Internet...
Characteristics of Life
ORGANIZATION -- they are made of and organized with cells (the basic unit of life).
METABOLISM -- they acquire materials and energy for metabolism.
RESPONSE -- they respond to stimuli in the external or internal environment.
REPRODUCTION -- they reproduce and develop (grow).
ADAPTATION -- they adapt and change over time (evolve) in response to the environment.
Diversity and Unity of Life, Evolution and Classification ---
acquire materials and energy, they 
respond to things in the environment, they 
Classification
- - - Khan Academy: Taxonomy and the Tree of life - - -
Principles of Science ---
Simplified, then, you have the following steps:
Microscope Parts pictures (used for Face-2-Face class):
Making a Wet Mount pictures (used for Face-2-Face class):
Cheek cells (Microscope slide preparations -- Face-2-Face class):
Onion cells (Microscope slide preparations -- Face-2-Face class):
System International (SI System; Metric system)
-- the system of measurement units used in most of the civilized world
